The subjects of International Law are entities that possess international legal personality, meaning they have rights, duties, and the capacity to act under international law. Below are the main subjects of international law: 1. States States are the primary and most important subjects of international law. They possess full legal personality and have the following capacities: To enter into treaties To enjoy sovereignty and territorial integrity To claim reparations To be held internationally responsible for wrongful acts States are recognized under the Montevideo Convention (1933) based on four criteria: a permanent population, defined territory, government, and capacity to enter into relations with other states. 2. International Organizations Organizations such as the United Nations (UN), World Health Organization (WHO), and International Monetary Fund (IMF) are subjects of international law to the extent that: They can make treaties They have legal status separate from member states They can bring claims or be held responsible under international law Their legal personality depends on their founding charters and recognized functions. 3. Individuals Although traditionally international law focused on states, individuals are now increasingly recognized as subjects, especially in: International Human Rights Law (e.g., ICCPR, UDHR) International Criminal Law (e.g., ICC prosecutions) Refugee and humanitarian law Individuals can be held accountable for war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity, and they can also claim rights under international human rights instruments. 4. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) NGOs do not have full international legal personality, but they play an influential role: They can consult with international organizations (e.g., through ECOSOC) They contribute to development and enforcement of international norms They are often granted observer status 5. Multinational Corporations (MNCs) Like NGOs, MNCs are not traditional subjects of international law, but they: Have certain rights and obligations (e.g., investment treaties) May be held accountable for violations under soft law instruments like the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights 6. Peoples and National Liberation Movements In some cases, international law recognizes the rights of peoples (e.g., right to self-determination) and certain national liberation movements as having limited personality, especially when recognized by international bodies. 7. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) Although not a state or intergovernmental organization, the ICRC has a unique status due to its role in international humanitarian law, and is recognized as a subject with specific rights and duties. Conclusion: The main subjects of international law are states, international organizations, and individuals. However, other actors like NGOs, MNCs, and liberation movements may also have limited roles under international law. The scope of international legal personality has evolved over time to address modern global relations and challenges.

Dear Client, Under international law, a "subject" is any entity endowed with international legal personality, which means it has rights and duties under international law and is capable of having legal relations in the international sphere. From the classical perspective, only states were considered subjects. Over a period of time, there has been a gradual evolution in the scope of subjects. Chief Subjects of International Law States: The sovereign states are the principal subjects, having full legal personality. Theoretically, towards international law, they have rights and obligations, such as entering into treaties, engaging in diplomatic relations, or ensuring the protection of human rights within their territories. International Organizations: Organizations like the United Nations and the World Health Organization are created by treaty among states and have legal personality to carry out the functions assigned to them. Their rights and duties remain as defined by their constitutive instruments and international law. Individuals: Perceived historically as mere objects, individuals carry rights and responsibilities today under international law and can be held responsible, for instance, for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, and they can claim rights under international human rights treaties. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Not being subjects traditionally considered in the same way, NGOs greatly affect international law by impacting national policies and human rights, thus appearing as participants in international forums. Their role can or cannot be recognized depending upon the context and the specific legal framework. Multinational Corporations: These entities move across magnetic borders and may have certain obligations under international law, particularly in relation to human rights and environmental standards. Their status as subjects is quite limited and is often channeled through the states in which they operate. Insurgent Groups and Liberation Movements: Under certain circumstances and depending on the intensity of the conflict in question, armed groups may obtain limited international legal personality, particularly if they control territory sufficient for meaningful engagement in negotiations or to be party to international agreements. Minorities and Indigenous Peoples: These groups have gained recognition in international law, especially in the areas of self-determination, protection of cultural heritage, and participation in decisions affecting them. Natural Entities: One of the salon objects in modern international legal discourse has been the recognition of natural objects such as rivers or ecosystems as subjects of international law. This is in view of strengthening environmental protection through the conferment of legal personality onto nature. Theoretical Perspectives The recognition of various subjects in international law is informed by different theories: Realist Theory: Posits that only states are true subjects of international law, as they possess sovereignty and the capacity to enforce legal norms. Fictional Theory: Suggests that entities other than states, like international organizations, are legal fictions created by states and thus derive their personality from state consent. Functional Theory: Advocates for recognizing any entity that performs functions within the international legal system as a subject, emphasizing the practical roles entities play over their formal status. These perspectives influence how international law adapts to the evolving landscape of global actors and challenges. I hope this answer helps. In case of future queries please feel free to contact us. Thank you.